Origin of Kashmir
Kashmir, often referred to as “Paradise on Earth,” is a region that shares its borders with China to the north and east, Pakistan to the west, and India to the south.
Geographically, it lies between 32° and 36° North latitude and 74° and 80° East longitude, covering an estimated area of about 180,000 km² (including the larger disputed region historically referred to as Jammu and Kashmir).
The name Kashmir is traditionally believed to be derived from “Kashyapa” and “Mira” or “Meru,” often interpreted as “the land of Kashyapa.” Another popular traditional explanation links it to “Ka” (water) and “Shimeera” (to desiccate), referring to land that emerged after water receded. However, these interpretations are rooted in legend and later linguistic explanations rather than confirmed historical linguistics.
Much of the early history of Kashmir is drawn from two important texts: the Nilamata Purana and the Rajatarangini, also known as “The River of Kings.” The Nilamata Purana, composed between the 6th and 8th centuries CE, contains around 1,400–1,500 verses and provides valuable insight into early religious practices, geography, and traditions of Kashmir.
The Rajatarangini, written by Kalhana, is another major historical chronicle of Kashmir. Written in Sanskrit, it consists of approximately 7,800 verses arranged in eight books (Tarangas). It was completed around 1148–1150 CE during the reign of Jayasimha of the Lohara dynasty. The work traces the rulers of Kashmir from legendary times (including references to the Mahabharata period) up to Kalhana’s own time and is widely regarded as the most important historical source on early Kashmir, although its earlier portions are partly legendary.
Later, during the reign of Zain-ul-Abidin, the text was translated into Persian by Mulla Ahmad, who gave it the title Bahr-ul-Asrar (not “Bahr-ul-Asman”). In the 19th century, it was translated into English by Aurel Stein.
The Rajatarangini was also translated into several other languages. Pt. Thakur Acharchand Shahpuraiah translated it into Urdu, while scholars such as Shastri Dwivedi and Pt. Gopi Krishan produced Hindi translations. In Kashmiri literature, Dr. Bashar Basheer translated selected parts of the work. Other important historical writings on Kashmir include Valley of Kashmir by Walter Lawrence and Tawarikh-i-Kashmir by Malik Haider.
The Nilamata Purana, also known as Kashmir Mahatmya, is regarded as one of the earliest texts related to Kashmir. Kalhana used this work as a source while writing the history of Kashmir. Modern scholarship credits Georg Buhler with helping bring manuscripts of such texts to wider academic attention.
According to this text, Kashmir was once a vast lake known as Satisar, and the original inhabitants were the Nagas. It is believed that a demon named Jalodbhava lived there and troubled the people residing near the surrounding mountains.
When the sage Kashyapa, the son of Marichi and grandson of Brahma, learned of the suffering, he came to help them. According to the legend, since the demon could not be defeated in water, Kashyapa drained the lake by cutting through the mountains near Baramulla. After the water receded, the demon was defeated.
After the lake was drained, the land came to be known as Kashyapapura or Kashyapamar, eventually evolving into the name Kashmir. These accounts are mythological in nature but form an important part of the cultural memory of the region.
In ancient references, the Greeks referred to the region as “Kaspeiria” or similar variants. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who visited Kashmir around 631 CE during the Karkota dynasty period, referred to it as “Kia-shi-mi-lo.” The local people of Kashmir refer to their land as “Kasheer.”
Paleolithic Period
For a long time, it was believed that the harsh climate of the Kashmir Valley prevented human habitation during the Paleolithic era. However, this view was challenged by the excavations of H. D. Sankalia, who identified Paleolithic remains near the Lidder River at Pahalgam. Discoveries such as crude stone tools, including axes, suggest early human presence in the region.
Later, D. P. Agrawal and his team identified another Paleolithic site in the Rembiara Valley at Balaora (Shopian) in South Kashmir. Findings included a chopper–chopping tool complex, discoids, and scrapers, further supporting evidence of early human activity.
Mesolithic Age
So far, no clearly established archaeological sites have been identified in Kashmir that can be definitively dated to the Mesolithic period (approximately 15,000–3,000 BC). This absence may be due to limited exploration or preservation challenges rather than a complete lack of human activity.
Neolithic Age
The Neolithic period in Kashmir is well represented through several important archaeological sites. The most prominent among them are Burzahom and Gufkral.
Burzahom was first identified by Helmut de Terra and T. T. Paterson, while Gufkral was excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India during 1962–63. Further excavations and studies were conducted in 1981–82 by K. D. Banerjee and A. K. Sharma.
Other Neolithic sites in the region include Begagund, Thajiwor, Elochibagh, Panzgom, and Sempur.
Archaeological studies of these sites have identified several developmental phases:
- 2800 – 2250 BC: Development of farming, animal domestication, and hunting practices
- 2250 – 2000 BC: Emergence of handmade pottery
- 2000 – 1500 BC: Use of terracotta objects, including bangles, and ornamental items such as beads and shells
The Neolithic culture of Kashmir is particularly notable for its pit dwellings, tools, pottery, and evidence of early settled life, marking a significant stage in the region’s prehistoric development.
Mahabharata Period
Kalhana begins his account of Kashmir’s history from a time even earlier than the period associated with the Mahabharata. According to his chronicle, the first ruler of Kashmir was Gonanda I. He is described as a contemporary of Krishna and an ally of Jarasandha. In Kalhana’s narrative, Gonanda I was killed in a conflict involving Krishna and Balarama.
After his death, his son Damodara I (not “Damodar I”) is said to have continued the hostility and attacked Krishna during a swayamvara in Gandhara. He too was killed in the encounter. Since there was no immediate male heir, Krishna is described as appointing Yashovati, the widow of Damodara I, as the ruler of Kashmir. She was pregnant at the time and governed the kingdom until the birth of her son.
Her son, Gonanda II, succeeded her. According to Kalhana’s account, the events associated with the Mahabharata war occurred during this period. Since Gonanda II was still a minor, he did not participate in the conflict between the Pandavas and the Kauravas.
After the reign of Gonanda II, Kalhana mentions that a succession of rulers governed Kashmir. He refers to a long line of kings but does not provide a complete list of their names, noting gaps in earlier records. Later writers and translators attempted to reconstruct these genealogies, though such reconstructions remain uncertain and are not fully supported by independent evidence.
Some traditional accounts state that the capital during this early period was Rajapura (identified with present-day Rajouri), although this identification is not firmly established.
According to later traditions, Gonanda II died without a strong successor, and the region came under the influence of rulers connected with the lineage of Parikshit, the king of Hastinapura. However, these accounts are not clearly described in Kalhana’s original narrative and are considered part of later historical interpretation rather than verified history.
From this point, some genealogical traditions suggest that a line associated with the Pandavas ruled Kashmir for an extended period, sometimes described as lasting over a thousand years. Such long durations are not considered historically reliable and are viewed as symbolic or exaggerated in nature.
After this legendary phase, Kashmir enters a more historically traceable period, eventually coming under the rule of Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the 3rd century BC, marking the beginning of a better-documented era in the region’s history.
Mauryan Empire
Important sources such as the Arthashastra of Kautilya, Indica of Megasthenes, and the edicts of Ashoka provide valuable information about the history of this period.
Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BC) was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. The origin of the term “Maurya” is debated among historians; one traditional explanation links it to his mother Moora, though this is not universally accepted. During his reign, he overthrew the Nanda dynasty and established his rule at Pataliputra, extending control over large parts of northern India, including regions of Sindh and Punjab.
In 305 BC, Chandragupta confronted Seleucus I Nicator. A treaty followed, through which Chandragupta gained territories in eastern Afghanistan and regions west of the Indus. In return, he is said to have provided 500 war elephants. Classical sources also mention a marital alliance, although the details (including the name “Helena”) are not confirmed in reliable historical records.
According to Jain traditions, Chandragupta adopted Jainism near the end of his life and abdicated the throne in favour of his son Bindusara. He is believed to have accompanied the Jain teacher Bhadrabahu to Shravanabelagola in present-day Karnataka, where he ended his life through the practice of sallekhana (ritual fasting).
After Chandragupta, Bindusara (297–272 BC) ascended the throne. He is referred to in Greek sources as “Amitrochates” (from Amitraghata, meaning “destroyer of enemies”). The Greek ambassador Deimachus is said to have visited his court. During his reign, his son Ashoka served as a provincial governor, likely at Ujjain.
Following Bindusara’s death, Ashoka became ruler around 268 BC. Accounts of his accession mention internal conflict, though details of eliminating brothers are derived from later traditions and remain uncertain. Ashoka is widely regarded as one of the greatest rulers in world history and is notable for using inscriptions and edicts to communicate directly with his subjects.
Ashoka is associated in tradition with several queens, including Asandhimitra and Karuvaki. His children are said to have included Mahendra, Kunala, Tivara, Sanghamitra, and others, though genealogical details vary across sources.
Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka. There is no reliable historical evidence that missions were sent to Yemen. During his reign, Ashoka appointed officials known as Dharma Mahamatras to promote moral and social welfare. In the 20th year of his reign, he visited Lumbini.
Ashoka prohibited certain forms of animal sacrifice and promoted welfare measures such as rest houses, roads, and medical facilities. His empire reached its greatest extent during his reign, covering much of the Indian subcontinent, though southern regions like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and parts of Karnataka remained outside direct control.
In the eighth year of his reign, Ashoka fought the Kalinga War. As recorded in his 13th Rock Edict, the war caused massive loss of life, deeply affecting him. Following this, he embraced Buddhism and adopted a policy of Dhamma (moral governance). His association with the monk Upagupta appears in later Buddhist traditions and is not universally confirmed.
Ashoka is traditionally credited with convening the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra. During his reign, Buddhism spread to regions including Kashmir. Missionaries such as Majjhantika (Madhyantika) are said to have been sent to Kashmir and Gandhara, though numerical claims such as mass conversions are not historically verifiable.
Some traditions credit this period with the introduction of saffron cultivation in Kashmir, though firm evidence is lacking. Ashoka is also associated with the establishment of Buddhist monasteries and the founding of a city known as Srinagari, often identified with present-day Pandrethan.
During this period, inscriptions across the Mauryan Empire were primarily written in Prakrit using the Brahmi script, while Kharosthi was used in the northwestern regions. Sanskrit became prominent later, and the Sharada script developed much later (around the early medieval period), not during Ashoka’s reign.
After Ashoka’s death in 232 BC, the Mauryan Empire began to decline. Traditions in Kashmir mention a ruler named Jaluka as his successor in the region, but this figure is not confirmed in mainstream Mauryan records and is considered part of regional historical tradition rather than established history.
In the following centuries, Kashmir came under the influence of various foreign groups, including Indo-Greeks, Sakas, and Parthians, who entered through the northwestern frontiers. Evidence from coins suggests the presence of rulers such as Sarpedones, Orthagnes, Ubouzanes, Abdagases II, and Pacores. Their rule eventually gave way to the rise of the Kushans.
Kushan Empire
The Kushans were one of the five branches of the Yuezhi tribe, who originally lived in the northwestern regions of China. They were displaced in the 2nd century BC after being defeated by the Xiongnu (often loosely identified with the Huns). Following this, the Yuezhi migrated westward into Central Asia and eventually settled in regions such as Bactria, Kabul Valley, and Gandhara, where they gradually replaced earlier Indo-Greek, Saka, and Parthian powers.
Kujula Kadphises (c. 30–80 AD) was the first major ruler who unified the Yuezhi tribes and laid the foundation of the Kushan Empire. He established authority over large parts of Afghanistan and northwestern India. His coins often imitate Indo-Greek rulers, reflecting the transitional nature of his rule. The term “Kushan” appears in later coinage, while titles such as “Yabgu” (tribal chief) are associated with early rulers.
After Kujula Kadphises, his successor is generally identified as Vima Taktu (often associated with the title “Soter Megas,” meaning “Great Saviour”), though the exact sequence of early Kushan rulers remains debated among historians. He expanded the empire further into northwestern India.
Following him, Vima Kadphises strengthened and consolidated the empire. He is widely regarded as the first Kushan ruler to issue large quantities of gold coins in India. These coins are an important source of historical information and often depict deities such as Shiva, along with symbols like Nandi and the trident, indicating the religious diversity and syncretism of the period.
After the death of Vima Kadphises, Kanishka I ascended the throne (commonly dated to around 127 AD, though earlier dates such as 78 AD are also proposed). Some historians associate him with the beginning of the Saka Era, but this attribution remains debated.
During his reign, the empire had major centers at Purushapura (present-day Peshawar) and Mathura. Kanishka was both a powerful conqueror and a great patron of art, religion, and culture. Under his rule, two important artistic traditions flourished: the Gandhara style and the Mathura style of sculpture.
Kanishka is often compared to Ashoka for his patronage of Buddhism. He supported the spread of Buddhism across Central Asia, which contributed to its transmission toward China and beyond. His control over key segments of the Silk Route facilitated cultural and religious exchanges between the Roman world, Central Asia, and East Asia.
Kanishka’s court is associated with several prominent scholars, including Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna (though his exact association is debated), and Charaka, the author of the Charaka Samhita. These associations reflect the intellectual and cultural vibrancy of the Kushan period, though not all can be confirmed with certainty.
The Fourth Buddhist Council is traditionally said to have been held under Kanishka’s patronage at Kundalvana (identified with present-day Harwan) in Kashmir. It was presided over by Vasumitra, with participation of scholars such as Ashvaghosha. However, the exact details, including the number of participants and the presence of figures like Vasubandhu (who lived later), are debated among historians.
During this period, significant developments took place in Buddhist thought, contributing to the emergence and spread of:
- Mahayana Buddhism – emphasizing the Bodhisattva ideal and devotional practices
- Hinayana Buddhism – preserving earlier traditions focused on monastic discipline and teachings
Kanishka is especially associated with the patronage and spread of Mahayana Buddhism.
Other rulers of the Kushan dynasty included Huvishka, Vasishka, and Vasudeva I. They are credited in tradition with founding towns such as Kanishkapura (Kanispur), Hushkapura (Uskur), and Jushkapura (Zukur) in the Kashmir region.
After the reign of Vasudeva I, the Kushan Empire began to decline and eventually fragmented into western and eastern parts. In the west, territories came under the control of the Kushano-Sasanians, associated with rulers such as Shapur I and Ardashir I.
This weakening of Kushan power, along with the rise of new regional forces such as the Guptas in northern India, created conditions that eventually led to the extension of new political influences into regions including Kashmir.
Gonanda Dynasty
After the decline of the Kushan Empire, Kashmir entered a transitional phase in which earlier ruling traditions, including the Gonanda line mentioned in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana, are said to have re-emerged in local narratives. However, the continuity of the Gonanda dynasty across long periods is not historically verifiable and is generally treated as part of traditional historiography rather than established political history.
One ruler associated with this later phase is Abhimanyu I, who is described in traditional accounts as shifting his capital to Rajouri during the winter season. Such references suggest adaptive governance practices, though details remain uncertain.
Other rulers mentioned in these traditions include Gonanda III, Vibhishana I, and King Kara. Some accounts describe King Kara as destroying Buddhist viharas and promoting Brahmanical traditions. However, such descriptions should be interpreted cautiously, as they may reflect later religious or political narratives rather than confirmed historical events.
While the Gupta Empire dominated much of northern India, Kashmir appears to have remained relatively independent. However, after the decline of Gupta power, the region became more vulnerable to external invasions from Central Asia.
Hun Rule in Kashmir (c. 500–600 AD)
During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, the Hephthalites invaded large parts of northern India, including Kashmir. Their expansion into the Indian subcontinent began under Toramana, who established authority over several regions.
His son, Mihirakula, became one of the most prominent rulers of this period. He attempted to extend his control across northern India but was eventually defeated by Yashodharman in the early 6th century CE.
After this defeat, Mihirakula is believed to have moved toward Kashmir, where he continued to exercise power and influence. Some accounts suggest that he later extended control toward Gandhara. Historical sources, including accounts attributed to Xuanzang, describe him as a harsh ruler and a persecutor of Buddhism, though such descriptions may reflect sectarian perspectives.
Mihirakula is also associated with Shaivism and is believed in tradition to have constructed a Shiva shrine near Srinagar. After his death around 530 CE, the power of the Huns declined rapidly in Kashmir and across northern India.
Later Rulers and Transitional Phase
Following the decline of Hun power, Kashmir experienced a period of political fragmentation. Several rulers are mentioned in traditional accounts, including Baka, Naka, Aksha, Gopaditya, Gokarna, Gopalditya, and Yudhishthira. The historical details of these rulers remain uncertain, as they are primarily known through later chronicles rather than contemporary evidence.
Aksha is traditionally credited with founding the town of Achabal, though this attribution cannot be independently verified. Yudhishthira is described as one of the last rulers of this phase, after which political authority is said to have shifted.
Some traditions state that Kashmir briefly came under rulers connected with Ujjain. One such figure is Pratapaditya, who is associated in legend with the lineage of Vikramaditya. These accounts, however, are not firmly supported by historical evidence.
The last ruler of this transitional phase is often identified as Samdhimati (also known as Aryaraja). According to tradition, he abdicated the throne, adopted an ascetic life, and promoted Shaivism.
Meghavahana and Later Gonanda Line
Following this period, Meghavahana emerged as an important ruler. He is described as a strong supporter of Buddhism and a proponent of ahimsa (non-violence). According to tradition, he prohibited animal slaughter and hunting within his kingdom. His queen, Amritaprabha, is credited with constructing a Buddhist monastery known as Amrit Bhavan Vihara.
Several rulers followed, including Vikramaditya, Pravarasena II, Yudhishthira II, Ranaditya, and Baladitya. Among them, Pravarasena II is regarded as one of the most significant rulers. He is credited with founding the city of Pravarasenapura, identified with present-day Srinagar, and strengthening the political structure of the kingdom. Claims that he extended his authority as far as Saurashtra are found in tradition but are not historically confirmed.
After Pravarasena II, the throne passed to Yudhishthira II, followed by Ranaditya and then Baladitya.
Baladitya is regarded as the last ruler of this line. According to tradition, he gave his daughter in marriage to Durlabhavardhana, a prominent noble at his court, and eventually transferred power to him. With this transition, Durlabhavardhana established the Karkota dynasty, marking the beginning of a new phase in the political history of Kashmir.
Karkota Dynasty
The Karkota dynasty was founded by Durlabhavardhana, who is believed to have been associated with a Naga lineage, as suggested by later traditions. Before ascending the throne, he served under the last ruler of the preceding line, often identified as Baladitya.
Durlabhavardhana ruled from approximately 625 to 661 AD. He married Queen Anangalekha, the daughter of Baladitya, and after his father-in-law’s death, he ascended the throne and established the Karkota ruling line in Kashmir.
Coins from his reign refer to him as “Durlabhadeva.” Under his rule, the kingdom consolidated its authority over Kashmir and nearby regions such as Rajouri and parts of the northwestern frontier. While claims of control over distant regions like Taxila and Kabul appear in later accounts, these should be treated with caution due to limited contemporary evidence.
During his reign, trade and commerce flourished, and both Buddhism and Brahmanical traditions coexisted, contributing to a period of relative stability.
The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang visited Kashmir around 631 AD during this period. He entered through the Baramulla route and stayed for nearly two years, studying Buddhist philosophy and Sanskrit. His accounts describe Kashmir as an important center of learning and religion, though they do not conclusively support claims of a vast empire under Durlabhavardhana.
After his death, his son Pratapaditya II succeeded him. He is associated in tradition with the founding of Pratapapura (identified with Tapar near Baramulla). After him, the throne passed to:
- Chandrapida (c. 711–719 AD)
- Tarapida (c. 720–724 AD)
- Lalitaditya Muktapida (c. 724–760 AD)
Lalitaditya Muktapida
The greatest ruler of the Karkota dynasty was Lalitaditya Muktapida. Because of his military campaigns and political ambition, he is sometimes compared to powerful rulers like Samudragupta, though such comparisons are interpretative rather than exact.
When Lalitaditya came to power, Kashmir was positioned between major geopolitical forces, including the Tibetan Empire and the expanding Arab power following the Umayyad expansion into Sindh.
Lalitaditya is credited in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana with extensive military campaigns. These accounts describe his expeditions across regions such as Punjab, Kannauj, parts of eastern India, and areas toward Central Asia. However, modern historians interpret many of these claims cautiously, as they likely combine historical memory with literary embellishment.
One of his notable conflicts is associated with Yashovarman. While the exact outcome remains debated, it reflects Kashmir’s interaction with major north Indian powers of the time.
There are also traditions suggesting resistance to Arab expansion in the northwest during the 8th century, particularly during the campaigns of Al-Junaid ibn Abd al-Rahman. While it is likely that regional Indian powers collectively resisted Arab advances, direct and detailed accounts of Lalitaditya’s role remain limited.
Similarly, accounts of campaigns extending into Central Asia, including Kabul and Turkestan, appear in later chronicles and should be treated as partially legendary, though they reflect Kashmir’s strategic engagement with Silk Route networks.
During this period, Kashmir maintained diplomatic and cultural contacts with the Tang dynasty. Chinese records suggest interactions involving Kashmir in the broader context of conflicts with Tibetan expansion, especially in Central Asian regions.
Apart from military achievements, Lalitaditya was an able administrator and a major patron of art, culture, and religion. His reign saw the flourishing of multiple traditions, including Shaivism and Buddhism, along with advancements in architecture and urban development.
One of his most remarkable contributions was the construction of the Martand Sun Temple. This grand temple complex, dedicated to the Sun God, represents one of the finest examples of early medieval Kashmiri architecture. The structure was later damaged and declined during the medieval period.
Lalitaditya also founded the city of Parihaspora near Baramulla, which served as an important royal center.
Literary traditions associate his court with scholars such as Bhavabhuti, Vakpati, and Damodaragupta. However, direct historical evidence linking all these figures to his court is limited, and such associations are often considered part of literary tradition.
According to Rajatarangini, Lalitaditya ruled for about 25 years, and his reign ended around 760 AD.
Later Karkota Rulers and Decline
After Lalitaditya’s death, the throne passed to his successors, including Jayapida. He is credited with founding Jayapura near Wular Lake and constructing the Andarkot Fort. According to Kalhana, he conducted military campaigns and patronized scholars, though his reign also saw internal instability.
The later Karkota period witnessed increasing political conflicts and weakening central authority. Rivalries within the ruling elite and challenges from emerging powers contributed to instability.
Eventually, this decline created conditions for the rise of the Utpala dynasty, which succeeded the Karkotas and marked the beginning of a new political phase in Kashmir’s history.