Utpala Dynasty
The Utpala dynasty was established by Avantivarman (c. 855–883 AD), who brought much-needed stability to Kashmir after a prolonged period of political disorder following the decline of the Karkota rulers. His reign is remembered as an era of peace, economic recovery, and administrative consolidation.
Avantivarman founded the cities of Avantipura and Suyyapur (named in honour of Suyya). It should be noted that Suyyapur is widely identified with present-day Sopore, though such identifications are based on historical interpretation rather than direct inscriptional evidence. In Avantipura, he commissioned two important temples—one dedicated to Shiva and the other to Vishnu—reflecting the flourishing of religious and cultural life during his reign.
Kashmir was particularly prone to devastating floods, which severely affected agriculture and the economy. During this period, Suyya emerged as a pivotal figure. Appointed by Avantivarman, he is described in chronicles as an accomplished engineer and administrator. According to traditional accounts—especially those preserved in Rajatarangini—Suyya undertook major hydraulic works to regulate the flow of the Jhelum River (Vitasta). These included clearing river channels, constructing embankments, and improving drainage toward Wular Lake (Mahapadma Lake). While the exact technical details cannot be independently verified, these works are credited with reducing floods and improving agricultural productivity, laying the foundation for what later traditions describe as an agricultural revival in Kashmir.
Avantivarman was also a notable patron of learning. His court attracted eminent scholars such as Anandavardhana, associated with the theory of Dhvani (aesthetics), and Bhatta Kallata, an important figure in the development of the Spanda school of Kashmir Shaivism. References to figures such as Rantanaka and Ratnadhara appear in later traditions, though detailed contemporary evidence about them remains limited.
Following Avantivarman, Shankaravarman (c. 883–902 AD) ascended the throne. His reign is associated with increased taxation and the use of forced labour (vishti) for state projects. He founded the town of Shankarapura near Baramulla. According to historical accounts, he died from injuries sustained during a military campaign in the north-west (often associated with regions like Hazara), though exact details vary across sources.
The later phase of the Utpala dynasty was marked by political instability and court intrigues. The last ruler, Suravarman II, was deposed around 939 AD by powerful internal factions, marking the effective end of Utpala authority.
With the decline of the Utpalas, a brief phase of Brahminical rule emerged under Yashaskara (Yashaskadeva), who ruled for approximately nine years. He is described in later chronicles as a capable and just ruler who attempted to restore order after prolonged instability. However, his reign ended abruptly when he was assassinated—traditionally said to have been poisoned by his minister, though such details come primarily from narrative chronicles.
After him, Sangramadeva briefly occupied the throne but was soon killed in the course of ongoing political conspiracies. These events paved the way for the rise of Parvagupta, who established a new ruling line in Kashmir.
This transition marked the end of the Utpala phase and the beginning of a new political chapter in the medieval history of Kashmir, characterized by shifting dynasties and continued court rivalries.
Gupta Dynasty
The Gupta dynasty in Kashmir was established by Parvagupta around 949 AD. His rule, however, was brief and is generally understood to have lasted only a short period. After his death, the throne passed to his son Kshemagupta.
Kshemagupta (c. 950–958 AD) is described in historical accounts—particularly in Rajatarangini—as a ruler who showed limited interest in active governance. According to these narratives, he confiscated wealth from several Buddhist monasteries (viharas) and is said to have used this wealth for religious endowments, including images associated with the name “Kshemagaurisha.” While such accounts are important, they should be understood within the literary and interpretative nature of the chronicle.
A major political development during his reign was his marriage to Queen Didda, the daughter of Simharaja of the Lohara lineage. This alliance later proved निर्णायक in shaping the future political trajectory of Kashmir. Queen Didda emerged as a highly influential figure in the administration. Some accounts suggest that Kshemagupta exercised limited authority, and later traditions even refer to him as “Deed Khema,” indicating the dominant role played by Didda—though such expressions are derived from narrative traditions rather than formal records.
Kshemagupta died in 958 AD, after which his son Abhimanyu II ascended the throne. As he was still a minor, Queen Didda assumed the role of regent and took control of the administration.
Queen Didda soon emerged as one of the most powerful rulers in the history of Kashmir. She exercised authority for several decades, both as regent and later as sovereign ruler. Known for her political skill, strategic acumen, and determination, she successfully maintained control despite repeated opposition from nobles and court factions, as described in Rajatarangini.
During her period of influence, Mahmud of Ghazni attempted to invade Kashmir (early 11th century), but these campaigns were unsuccessful in subduing the valley. It is important to note that these invasions are generally dated toward the later part of Didda’s era or shortly after, and the precise chronology varies across sources.
Coins issued during this period sometimes bore the combined names “Didda–Kshemagupta,” indicating continuity of royal legitimacy. These coins were typically made of copper and debased metal alloys, reflecting the monetary practices of the time.
According to traditional accounts, Queen Didda is also credited with sponsoring the construction of numerous temples. The often-cited figure of 64 temples appears in later interpretations of historical texts, though precise archaeological confirmation remains limited. Notably, she did not perform sati after her husband’s death and instead continued to rule, which distinguishes her from many royal widows of that era.
Abhimanyu II ruled nominally from 958–972 AD, but effective power remained with Didda. After his death, she placed her grandsons on the throne in succession while consolidating her authority. Eventually, around 981 AD, she assumed full sovereign power.
Queen Didda ruled until her death in 1003 AD, at an advanced age (commonly estimated around 75 years). Since her direct heirs had predeceased her, she arranged the succession before her death. She nominated Sangramaraja, the son of her brother Udayaraja, as her successor.
With the accession of Sangramaraja, the Lohara dynasty came to power in Kashmir, marking the beginning of a new phase in the political history of the region.
Lohara Dynasty
The Lohara dynasty began with the accession of Sangramaraja, who became the ruler of Kashmir after being nominated by Queen Didda before her death in 1003 AD. His reign was marked by both external threats and internal political struggles.
During the rule of Sangramaraja, Mahmud of Ghazni attempted to invade Kashmir twice, in 1015 AD and again around 1021–1022 AD. Both attempts failed. The difficult terrain of the valley, combined with strong defensive measures organized by Sangramaraja and supported by his influential minister Tunga, prevented the Ghaznavid forces from entering Kashmir. However, following these conflicts, internal rivalries intensified, and Tunga along with his son was later killed in political intrigue. Sangramaraja continued to rule until his death in 1028 AD.
After his death, his son Hariraja briefly ascended the throne. His reign lasted only about 22 days, after which he died. The throne then passed to his younger brother Ananta, who ruled from 1028 to 1063 AD. During his reign, Kashmir faced attacks from neighbouring hill chiefs, particularly from regions such as Poonch and Chamba, but Ananta managed to maintain control over the kingdom.
Another significant ruler of the dynasty was Kalasha, the grandson of Sangramaraja, who ruled from 1063 to 1089 AD. Kalasha is credited with introducing administrative and financial reforms aimed at stabilizing the kingdom. He regulated state expenditure, improved the financial condition of the treasury, and attempted to restore public confidence in governance. His administration was supported by ministers such as Varman and Kandapa, though detailed independent verification of their roles is limited.
After Kalasha, his son Utkarsha ascended the throne. However, his younger brother Harsha was more ambitious and politically active. During this period, serious internal conflict developed within the kingdom. According to accounts in Rajatarangini, a severe civil war erupted, causing widespread disorder. Parts of the royal palace were destroyed, and several members of the royal family were killed. Harsha, known for his patronage of art and literature, initially escaped but was eventually captured and killed.
During this period, Champaka, the father of the historian Kalhana, served as a minister in Harsha’s court.
After the death of Harsha, political authority passed into the hands of two princes, Uchchala and Sussala. Uchchala ruled Kashmir from 1101 to 1111 AD, while Sussala later assumed control during the early 12th century. Uchchala adopted calculated political strategies to weaken the powerful feudal lords known as the Damras. By encouraging rivalries among them, he reduced their influence and strengthened royal authority without extensive military campaigns.
One of the most important rulers of the Lohara dynasty was Jayasimha, who came to power after this period of turmoil. He ruled for about 27 years and succeeded in restoring peace and stability in the kingdom. During his reign, temples and shrines were repaired and restored, and new religious foundations were established. His administration helped revive order after prolonged internal conflict.
It was during the reign of Jayasimha that Kalhana completed his celebrated historical chronicle Rajatarangini, which remains one of the most important sources for the early history of Kashmir. Because of his achievements in restoring stability and supporting religious institutions, Jayasimha is often regarded as one of the last significant Hindu rulers of Kashmir.
Jayasimha ruled until 1155 AD, after which the throne passed to his son Paramanuka, who was later succeeded by Vantideva. Vantideva ruled Kashmir from 1165 to 1172 AD and is generally considered the last significant ruler of the Lohara dynasty.
After his death, the kingdom entered a period of political instability marked by conflicts among rival nobles and members of the royal family. These internal struggles gradually weakened the dynasty and eventually brought an end to Lohara rule in Kashmir.
Some later traditions mention that a ruler named Vuppadeva was elected by the people and established a new line of rulers. However, historians debate the accuracy of these accounts, and the details of this transition remain uncertain in historical records.
Deva Dynasty
The Deva dynasty is generally considered the last Hindu ruling line of Kashmir before the establishment of Muslim rule in the valley. Several rulers belonged to this line, and among them Sahadeva is one of the most significant figures in its later history.
The reign of Sahadeva is notable because two important foreign figures arrived in Kashmir during this time: Shah Mir, who came from the Swat Valley, and Rinchan (also known as Rinchana), a nobleman of probable Tibetan or Ladakhi origin. Both of these individuals later played decisive roles in the political transformation of Kashmir.
During Sahadeva’s rule, Kashmir faced a devastating invasion by a Tatar/Mongol chief known in sources as Zulju (also referred to as Dulucha, Zulchu, or Dalucha in different accounts). Entering the valley through the Baramulla Pass, the invading forces caused widespread destruction. Towns and villages were devastated, crops were destroyed, and parts of Srinagar were burned. This invasion created severe political and social disruption across the valley.
Instead of organizing resistance, Sahadeva fled toward Kishtwar. During this period, he is said to have married Kota Rani, the daughter of his commander-in-chief Ramachandra. However, the political situation remained unstable, and Sahadeva was eventually killed near the Banihal Pass amid continuing turmoil.
Following these events, groups such as the Gaddis from the Kishtwar region attempted to move into the valley but were driven back by the forces of Ramachandra, indicating continued resistance from local power structures.
Taking advantage of the widespread disorder, Rinchan seized power in Kashmir around 1320 AD. He proclaimed himself ruler and appointed Shah Mir as his wazir (prime minister). He also married Kota Rani, thereby strengthening his political legitimacy.
According to historical traditions, including accounts such as Waqiat-e-Kashmir, Rinchan came into contact with the Sufi saint Bulbul Shah. Influenced by him, Rinchan converted to Islam and adopted the name Sultan Sadr-ud-Din, becoming the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir. He is also associated in tradition with early Islamic constructions in Srinagar, including a mosque often identified as Bud Masjid (though details vary across sources and should be treated cautiously).
However, Sultan Sadr-ud-Din ruled for only a short period (c. 1320–1323 AD). After his death in 1323 AD, he left behind a minor son, Haider.
Following his death, Kota Rani became regent for her young son. Later, on the advice of nobles, she married Udayanadeva, the brother of Sahadeva, who was placed on the throne. Despite being the nominal ruler, Udayanadeva is generally described in historical accounts as ineffective, with real authority remaining in the hands of Kota Rani.
During Udayanadeva’s reign, another invader named Achala attacked Kashmir. The king fled toward Tibet, but Kota Rani organized resistance and successfully defended the kingdom, reportedly with the assistance of Shah Mir. This victory significantly enhanced Shah Mir’s influence in the valley.
Subsequently, Kota Rani assumed direct control of administration and shifted the capital to Inderkot (present-day Safapora) around 1338 AD, reflecting an attempt to reorganize political authority.
In 1339 AD, Shah Mir moved decisively against the ruling authority. He captured Srinagar and took control of Inderkot, after which he declared himself the ruler of Kashmir. This event marked the formal establishment of Muslim rule in the valley and the beginning of the Shah Mir dynasty.
Around the same time, Udayanadeva died, and Kota Rani is believed—according to later traditions—to have committed suicide. With her death in 1339 AD, the Deva dynasty came to an end, closing the long period of Hindu dynastic rule in Kashmir.
Shah Miri Dynasty
The Shah Miri dynasty marked the beginning of Muslim rule in Kashmir. It was founded by Shah Mir, who ascended the throne in 1339 AD and ruled until 1342 AD under the title Sultan Shams-ud-Din. Shah Mir had originally arrived in Kashmir from the Swat Valley during the reign of Sahadeva and gradually rose to prominence in the political affairs of the kingdom.
With his accession to the throne, a new political era began in Kashmir. During this period, a chronological system known as the Kashmiri Era (Kashmir Sana) was used in administrative records. This era was counted from the accession of Rinchan in 1320 AD, when he converted to Islam and became Sultan Sadr-ud-Din. The Kashmiri Era continued to be used until the Mughal conquest of Kashmir in Mughal annexation of Kashmir (1586).
After Sultan Shams-ud-Din, the throne passed to his elder son Jamshid, who ruled for a short period of about fourteen months. His rule ended when his brother Ali Sher revolted against him and seized power.
Ali Sher adopted the royal title Sultan Ala-ud-Din and ruled Kashmir for about twelve years. During his reign, he introduced several administrative changes. One important decision was shifting the capital from Inderkot to Alauddinpura, generally identified with present-day Srinagar. His rule also witnessed certain changes in administrative and social regulations.
Sultan Shihab-ud-Din
One of the most notable rulers of the Shah Miri dynasty was Sultan Shihab-ud-Din. His reign is often remembered as a period of political expansion and relative stability in Kashmir. He maintained a court that included both Muslim and Hindu officials. Among the prominent Hindu administrators serving under him were Udayashri and Kota Bhat.
During his reign, Kashmir faced a military challenge from the ruler of Kashgar in Central Asia, who advanced toward the region. Sultan Shihab-ud-Din successfully repelled this threat, demonstrating considerable military capability. His campaigns also extended toward Ladakh and parts of Baltistan, strengthening Kashmir’s influence in surrounding areas.
Sultan Shihab-ud-Din is also associated with expeditions toward the plains of northern India. Some accounts suggest that he advanced toward Kangra. However, claims regarding direct confrontation or territorial settlement with Firoz Shah Tughlaq should be treated with caution, as historical sources provide limited and sometimes conflicting evidence on the extent of these encounters.
He is credited with founding the town of Shihabuddinpura, identified with present-day Shadipora. Because of his military strength and expansionist policies, some historians compare him to Lalitaditya Muktapida, referring to him as the “Lalitaditya of Medieval Kashmir.”
During his reign, in 1372 AD, the renowned Sufi saint Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani visited Kashmir (traditionally regarded as one of his early visits). He brought with him spiritual teachings as well as artisans from Persia and Central Asia, whose influence later played a significant role in shaping the cultural, religious, and economic life of Kashmir.
Sultan Qutb-ud-Din and His Successors
After the reign of Sultan Shihab-ud-Din, the throne was occupied by Sultan Qutb-ud-Din, whose original name is often recorded as Hindal (or Hindal Khan in some sources). His reign marked a continuation of political stability established by his predecessor.
During his rule, the renowned Sufi saint Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani visited Kashmir again, traditionally dated to around 1379–1380 AD. This visit further strengthened the cultural, religious, and intellectual links between Kashmir and the Persianate world.
Sultan Qutb-ud-Din had two sons:
- Sikandar
- Haibat
After his death, the throne eventually passed to his son Sikandar Shah Miri.
Sultan Sikandar
Sikandar Shah Miri is one of the most debated rulers in the history of Kashmir. He is often remembered by the title “But-Shikan” (Idol Breaker), a label derived from historical accounts that describe the destruction of several temples and religious institutions during his reign. However, modern historians note that these accounts—mainly from later chronicles—should be read with caution, as they may contain exaggerations or sectarian bias.
During this period, many scholars, theologians, and Sayyid families migrated to Kashmir from Persia and Central Asia. Sultan Sikandar welcomed these groups and granted them land and jagirs, contributing to the growing Persian cultural influence in the valley.
His religious policies were influenced by figures such as Mir Muhammad Hamadani and Malik Saif-ud-Din, a former Hindu who converted to Islam and became an important political figure in the administration.
To institutionalize religious authority, Sikandar established the office of Sheikh-ul-Islam. Several significant architectural works are associated with his reign. Among them is the Jamia Masjid Srinagar, an important example of Indo-Persian architectural style. Mosques were also constructed in places such as Bijbehara and Bawan.
He is also associated with the construction or early patronage of the Khanqah-e-Moula (Shah-e-Hamdan Mosque) on the banks of the Jhelum River, which became one of the most significant religious centers in Srinagar. In addition, he built the Mazar-i-Salatin, a royal graveyard near Zaina Kadal.
Ali Shah and the Rise of Zain-ul-Abidin
Sultan Sikandar died in 1413 AD. Before his death, he nominated his son Mir Khan as his successor. Mir Khan ascended the throne with the title Ali Shah of Kashmir.
During Ali Shah’s rule, the powerful minister Malik Saif-ud-Din emerged as a dominant political figure. This period witnessed administrative instability and heightened religious tensions, partly as a continuation of earlier policies.
After the reign of Ali Shah, his brother Shahi Khan ascended the throne. Upon becoming ruler, he adopted the title Zain-ul-Abidin. He would later emerge as one of the most celebrated and admired rulers in the history of Kashmir, known for his policies of tolerance, cultural revival, and administrative reform.
Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin
Zain-ul-Abidin (1420–1470 AD) is widely regarded as the greatest ruler of medieval Kashmir. He is popularly remembered by the titles Shahi Khan and Bud Shah (The Great King). His reign is especially known for its religious tolerance, cultural revival, and economic prosperity.
Zain-ul-Abidin adopted a broad and liberal policy toward all religious communities in the kingdom. One of his primary objectives was to restore the confidence of the non-Muslim population, which had been affected by earlier policies. He granted religious freedom, abolished the jizya tax (as noted in several historical traditions), discouraged practices such as cow slaughter, and allowed people who had previously converted under pressure to return to their earlier faiths if they wished. Many Kashmiri Brahmins who had left the valley during earlier disturbances were invited back and given protection and opportunities in administration.
Under his rule, the influence of certain religious officials declined, and positions in the state were increasingly awarded on the basis of merit rather than religious affiliation. Several Hindu scholars and officials held important roles in his court. Among them were Shreya Bhatta (royal adviser), Karpur Bhatta (physician), and Rupya Bhatta (astrologer).
Contemporary writers describe Zain-ul-Abidin as a scholar with deep interest in philosophy and literature. Historical accounts suggest that he engaged with the six classical schools of Indian philosophy. He was also known to participate in cultural and seasonal festivals, including those associated with the origin of the Jhelum River.
The Sultan was an educated linguist and poet. He was familiar with Persian, Sanskrit, and Kashmiri, and is traditionally said to have composed poetry under the pen name “Qutb” (though direct literary evidence is limited and debated).
His court included many distinguished scholars such as Mulla Ahmad, Sayyid Muhammad Rumi, Qazi Sayyid Ali Shirazi, Sayyid Muhammad Sistani, Maulana Kabir, Mulla Nadiri, Jonaraja, Srivara, Yodhabhatta, and Nathsoma Pandit.
During this period, historical writing flourished. Jonaraja continued Rajatarangini and extended the narrative up to 1459 AD (approximate). After his death, his disciple Srivara continued the chronicle. Nathsoma Pandit composed Zain Charita, and Yodhabhatta authored Zain Prakash, both focusing on the life and achievements of the Sultan.
Zain-ul-Abidin showed great interest in books and scholarship and is known to have maintained a large royal library. He established a translation bureau where scholars translated important Sanskrit works into Persian. Texts such as the Mahabharata and Rajatarangini were translated during this period, though attribution to specific individuals like Mulla Ahmad varies across sources.
His reign witnessed remarkable development in arts and crafts, many of which later became identified as traditional Kashmiri handicrafts. Industries such as wood carving, shawl weaving, carpet weaving, papier-mâché, and silk production expanded significantly under royal patronage.
To improve craftsmanship, the Sultan is said to have sent artisans to regions such as Samarkand, Bukhara, and Khurasan to learn advanced techniques. These artisans later trained local craftsmen, contributing to the long-term preservation of these skills in Kashmir.
He is often credited with encouraging the Pashmina shawl industry, with influences traced to Tibetan weaving traditions. The papier-mâché craft also developed significantly during this period, though its exact origins remain debated among historians.
Because of his architectural and urban projects, Zain-ul-Abidin is sometimes compared to Shah Jahan and referred to as the “Shah Jahan of Kashmir” (a later historical comparison, not contemporary).
He established gardens such as Bagh-i-Zain Dab, Bagh-i-Zainpur, and Bagh-i-Zaingir. He also founded settlements including Zainapur, Zainakut, and Zainagar, and is associated with the development of the town of Nowshahr.
One of his notable constructions was the wooden bridge across the Jhelum River known as Zaina Kadal. He also developed artificial islands such as Zaina Lank in Wular Lake, and Sona Lank and Rupa Lank in Dal Lake.
Zain-ul-Abidin was also a patron of music and performing arts. Cultural exchange during his reign introduced Persian musical influences such as Rast, Nava, and Nauruz. Musicians and artists from Central Asia visited his court, contributing to a vibrant cultural environment.
In military affairs, he worked to restore territories that had drifted away during earlier instability. Regions such as Ladakh and Baltistan were brought back under Kashmiri influence. Rebellions by groups such as the Khokhars were also suppressed, helping to maintain political unity.
Zain-ul-Abidin is remembered as a just ruler. He introduced a relatively humane system of justice, reducing harsh punishments for minor crimes. He emphasized reform over retribution, and historical accounts suggest that law and order improved during his reign.
He established judicial institutions and appointed competent judges. Hindu officials, including Pandits, were reinstated in administration. Efforts were also made to reduce corruption and improve governance, supported by an intelligence system.
Administratively, the kingdom was reorganized into parganas, which were further divided into villages. A land-measurement system known as Jarib was used for assessing agricultural land.
Agriculture received special attention. Several irrigation canals—such as those in Zainagir and other regions—were constructed or improved, contributing to increased agricultural productivity. During times of scarcity, the Sultan is said to have regulated prices of essential goods.
State regulations were sometimes recorded on durable materials such as copper plates to ensure public awareness, although direct archaeological evidence of such practices is limited.
Decline of the Shah Miri Dynasty
After the death of Zain-ul-Abidin in 1470 AD, his son Haider Shah (1470–1472 AD) ascended the throne. However, later rulers of the Shah Mir dynasty gradually lost authority due to internal conflicts and weak administration.
Habib Shah (r. c. 1557–1561 AD) is generally regarded as the last ruler of the dynasty, though effective power during his reign was held by powerful nobles.
During this period, the Mughal emperor Akbar attempted to extend influence into Kashmir. Early Mughal expeditions toward the region faced resistance from local forces, including those led by Ghazi Chak.
As Ghazi Chak’s power increased, he eventually deposed Habib Shah and assumed authority. This marked the emergence of the Chak dynasty and the end of the Shah Miri dynasty in Kashmir.
Chak Dynasty (c. 1555–1586 AD)
The Chak dynasty emerged during the later phase of the Shah Mir dynasty and became the last independent ruling power in Kashmir before the Mughal conquest. The dynasty was founded by Ghazi Shah Chak (often referred to as Ghazi Chak), who assumed power around 1555 AD and ruled until 1561 AD.
The Chaks are generally believed to have originated from the Dardic regions of Gilgit–Baltistan and gradually rose to prominence in Kashmiri politics and military affairs. By the mid-16th century, they had become one of the most powerful political groups in the valley.
Ghazi Shah Chak is described in historical accounts as a capable and disciplined administrator who attempted to restore order during a time of political instability. When he came to power, the state treasury had been weakened due to prolonged internal conflict and economic disruption. He focused on reorganizing the financial system and strengthening governance. Officials and governors were appointed to maintain law and order across the kingdom.
Although Ghazi Chak followed Shia Islam, he appears to have allowed a degree of religious freedom for different communities, though sectarian tensions did not disappear entirely during this period. He is also associated with enforcing strict discipline within the administration. A system of vigilance was maintained to monitor officials and prevent corruption.
One frequently cited example in historical narratives is that he ordered the execution of his own son, Haider Khan, after he was accused of murdering a relative. While this story reflects his reputation for strict justice, the exact details vary across sources and should be treated with caution.
Hussain Shah Chak
After Ghazi Chak, the throne passed to Husain Shah Chak, who ruled approximately from 1563 to 1570 AD (with some variations in dates across sources).
He is remembered as a capable ruler who introduced administrative discipline. It is traditionally stated that he organized government departments in a structured manner, assigning specific days for official matters, which improved administrative efficiency—though detailed contemporary evidence for this system is limited.
During his reign, efforts were made to reduce sectarian tensions between Shia and Sunni communities. Reflecting a policy of balance, he appointed Syed Habib, a Sunni scholar, as Qazi of Srinagar.
Hussain Shah also maintained diplomatic relations with the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar. Mughal envoys were received with honour, and exchanges of gifts and formal courtesies took place, indicating cautious political engagement rather than open conflict at this stage.
Ali Shah Chak
After Hussain Shah, Ali Shah Chak ruled from about 1570 to 1578 AD.
He is described as a ruler of relatively humane disposition. Some historical traditions suggest that he discontinued certain harsh punishments such as mutilation, which had occasionally been used in earlier periods, although such claims are not uniformly confirmed across all sources.
Ali Shah followed a comparatively conciliatory policy toward both Shia and Sunni communities, attempting to maintain internal stability. He was also known to be fond of polo, a popular sport among the ruling elite of Kashmir and Central Asia.
According to traditional accounts, he suffered a fatal injury while playing polo around 1579 AD. Realizing his condition, he nominated his son Yusuf Shah Chak as his successor.
Yusuf Shah Chak
Yusuf Shah Chak ascended the throne around 1579 AD. He is remembered both as a ruler and as a romantic historical figure because of his association with the celebrated Kashmiri poet Habba Khatoon, popularly known as Zoon (Zooni).
Yusuf Shah is often described in historical traditions as a ruler with refined aesthetic tastes who appreciated beauty, poetry, and nature. During his reign, places such as Gulmarg and Sonamarg are believed to have gained prominence as scenic retreats, although their full development as organized resorts occurred in later periods.
However, his inclination toward personal pursuits and courtly life appears to have affected the efficiency of administration. Internal political conflicts intensified, and several influential figures, including nobles such as Haider Chak and Muhammad Bhat, turned against him.
As instability increased, Yusuf Shah temporarily lost control of the throne. In an effort to secure his position, he sought support from the Mughal emperor Akbar.
Although he briefly regained authority, his position remained fragile. He attempted administrative reforms and appointed Muhammad Bhat as a key minister to restore order. Despite these efforts, the growing influence of the Mughal Empire in Kashmir weakened his independence.
Eventually, Akbar invited Yusuf Shah to his court under the pretext of negotiations. However, instead of being allowed to return, Yusuf Shah was detained. He was later sent to Bihar, where he died in 1592 AD. His detention effectively ended his rule and marked a decisive step toward Mughal control over Kashmir.
Yaqub Shah Chak and the Mughal Conquest
After Yusuf Shah’s removal, his son Yaqub Shah Chak declared himself the ruler of Kashmir. However, by this time the kingdom was deeply divided and facing increasing pressure from the Mughal Empire.
Yaqub Shah’s rule was marked by strained relations with sections of the nobility. His policies and conduct led to dissatisfaction among influential groups, including religious scholars and political elites.
Historical traditions mention that a group of prominent figures, including the respected scholar Sheikh Yaqub Sarfi, approached Emperor Akbar and expressed willingness to accept Mughal authority under certain conditions. These conditions are described as including:
- Non-interference in religious practices and freedom of worship
- Protection of local trade and economic activity
- Prevention of forced labour (begar) and enslavement
- Limitation of arbitrary power of corrupt nobles
While these accounts appear in later chronicles, the exact terms and their formal acceptance remain a matter of historical debate.
The Mughal Empire then moved decisively to annex Kashmir. An imperial force led by Qasim Khan advanced into the valley. Yaqub Shah attempted to resist but was ultimately defeated near Shopian, traditionally identified with the Battle of Haripura.
With this defeat in 1586 AD, the rule of the Chak dynasty came to an end, and Kashmir was formally incorporated into the Mughal Empire under Emperor Akbar.
Mughal Rule (1586–1753 AD)
The Mughal period in Kashmir began when Akbar conquered the valley in 1586 AD, bringing an end to the rule of the Chak dynasty. Mughal authority continued in Kashmir until 1753 AD. This period is often remembered as a time of relative peace, administrative organization, and architectural development, during which the Mughal emperors governed the region through appointed subedars (governors).
Soon after the conquest, Akbar personally visited Kashmir in 1589 AD. During this visit, he introduced administrative reforms, including a revenue system influenced by the broader Mughal model associated with his finance minister Raja Todar Mal. This system helped standardize land taxation and later influenced revenue practices in the valley.
Akbar also initiated several construction projects. Around 1590 AD, he ordered the construction of the Hari Parbat Fort and established a nearby settlement often referred to in sources as Nagar Nagar (or Nagar Nagari). These works provided employment to people affected by earlier instability.
The Mughal rulers were greatly attracted to Kashmir because of its natural beauty and skilled artisans. Akbar is recorded to have visited the valley three times. On later visits, he was accompanied by European Jesuit missionaries such as Jerome Xavier and Benoist de Goës. During this period, Mughal influence also extended into regions such as Ladakh and Baltistan.
Akbar also promoted connectivity by improving the route between Lahore and Kashmir, commonly known as the Mughal Road, which enhanced trade and communication between the valley and northern India.
After Akbar’s death in 1605 AD, the Mughal throne passed to his son Jahangir.
Jahangir’s Period
Under Jahangir, Kashmir became one of the emperor’s most cherished retreats. Before ascending the throne, he was known as Prince Salim. As emperor, he visited Kashmir multiple times (traditionally said to be around twelve to thirteen visits), often accompanied by his queen Nur Jahan.
Jahangir had a deep interest in gardens, art, and nature. During his reign, several important Mughal gardens were developed in Kashmir. Among them were the Achabal Garden and the garden complex at Verinag, the source of the Jhelum River.
He also laid the foundation of the famous Shalimar Bagh (initially known as Farah Baksh). Another major garden, Nishat Bagh, was constructed during this period by Asif Khan, the brother of Nur Jahan.
After Jahangir’s death, the throne passed to his son Shah Jahan in 1628 AD.
Shah Jahan’s Period
Before becoming emperor, Shah Jahan was known as Prince Khurram. He visited Kashmir several times and governed the region through appointed subedars.
Like his predecessors, Shah Jahan had a strong interest in architecture and landscape design. During his reign, the Chashme Shahi garden was constructed in 1632 AD under the supervision of the Mughal governor Ali Mardan Khan.
He also expanded and enhanced existing gardens such as Shalimar Bagh and the Verinag complex by adding fountains and water channels. Another notable structure associated with this period is Pari Mahal, which was developed under the patronage of his son Dara Shikoh as a center for learning and contemplation.
Shah Jahan’s last recorded visit to Kashmir took place around 1651 AD.
Aurangzeb’s Period
After Shah Jahan, the Mughal Empire came under the rule of Aurangzeb in 1658 AD. Also known by titles such as Alamgir, his reign lasted nearly fifty years.
Unlike earlier Mughal emperors, Aurangzeb showed relatively limited personal interest in Kashmir and is recorded to have visited the valley only once, in 1665 AD. The French traveler François Bernier, who accompanied the Mughal court, documented aspects of this journey.
Kashmir during this period was administered through a series of governors. Over time, signs of administrative strain and political instability began to emerge across the Mughal Empire, including in Kashmir.
Decline of Mughal Authority in Kashmir
During the later Mughal period, administration in Kashmir became increasingly weak and often corrupt. Several governors exploited the local population, leading to economic hardship, rising discontent, and instability.
In 1747–48, the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Durrani began expanding his power toward northern India and Kashmir. An early attempt to capture the region was resisted by Mughal forces.
However, the internal condition of Mughal rule continued to deteriorate. Eventually, influential Kashmiri nobles such as Mir Muqim Kant and Khwaja Zahir Didmari invited Ahmad Shah Durrani, who was then in Lahore, to intervene in Kashmir.
In 1753 AD, Durrani sent an army under Abdullah Khan Ishaq Aqasi. A decisive battle took place near Shopian, in which the Mughal forces were defeated, leading to the establishment of Afghan rule in Kashmir.
Abdullah Khan Ishaq Aqasi became the Afghan governor, but his rule soon became unpopular due to harsh treatment of merchants and peasants.
In response, a revolt was organized by Kashmiri leaders including Abdul Hassan Khan Banday along with the Mughal governor Sukh Jiwan Ram. The Afghan governor was killed, and Mughal authority was briefly restored under Alamgir II.
However, this restoration proved temporary. The Mughal Empire was already in decline, and Kashmir soon entered another turbulent phase under Afghan rule, marking the end of stable Mughal authority in the valley.
Afghan Rule (c. 1752–1819 AD)
After the final decline of Mughal authority, Ahmad Shah Durrani brought Kashmir under Afghan control around 1752 AD, firmly establishing Durrani rule in the valley. This rule continued until 1819 AD, lasting nearly seven decades. In Kashmiri historical memory, this period is often described as one of the most difficult and oppressive phases in the region’s history.
During Afghan rule, Kashmir was governed through subedars (governors) appointed by Kabul. Historical records suggest that more than twenty governors ruled the valley during this period. Most of them were Afghans, although a few non-Afghans, including Hindus from the Khatri community, also held administrative positions.
Initially, many Kashmiris hoped that Afghan rule would restore peace and stability after the collapse of Mughal administration. However, these expectations were soon disappointed. Contemporary accounts and later chronicles describe heavy taxation, forced exactions, looting by troops, and widespread insecurity. In many areas, people felt unsafe even within their own homes.
After the death of Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1772, instability within the Durrani Empire further worsened conditions in Kashmir. Political struggles in Kabul led to frequent changes of governors, creating administrative inconsistency and chaos in the valley.
Early Afghan Governors
The first Afghan governor appointed in Kashmir is generally identified as Abdullah Khan Ishaq Aqasi. His rule is widely described in historical sources as harsh and oppressive. Economic conditions deteriorated significantly during this time, with trade declining and currency circulation becoming weak.
His administration provoked resistance among the population. Facing growing unrest, he eventually withdrew, leaving the administration in a weakened and unstable condition.
Raja Sukh Jiwan Mal
One of the most notable figures associated with this period was Sukh Jiwan Mal.
Although initially connected with Afghan authority, Sukh Jiwan Mal effectively established semi-independent control over Kashmir. He later acknowledged the nominal authority of the Mughal emperor in Delhi, who granted him the title of “Raja.”
Unlike many other governors, he earned a reputation as a capable and comparatively just administrator. He appointed Abdul Hassan Bandey as a key revenue अधिकारी and took steps to improve governance.
During a time of famine and economic hardship, he arranged for the distribution of grain, helping to reduce suffering among the population. Historical descriptions portray him as a learned individual—versed in languages and poetry—and relatively tolerant toward different religious communities, including Hindus, Muslims, Sunnis, and Shias.
However, his growing autonomy brought him into conflict with Afghan authority. After consolidating power following the Third Battle of Panipat, Ahmad Shah Durrani moved to reassert control over Kashmir.
At the same time, Ranjit Dev supported Nur-ud-Din, who opposed Sukh Jiwan Mal. Abandoned by some of his commanders, including Bhakt Mal, Sukh Jiwan Mal was eventually defeated and captured, bringing an end to his rule.
Later Afghan Governors
After his fall, Nur-ud-Din was appointed governor and ruled Kashmir on multiple occasions.
Another notable Afghan governor, Amir Khan Jawansher, contributed to infrastructure in the valley. He is credited with constructing:
- Amira Kadal bridge in Srinagar
- Sher Garhi Fort along the Jhelum River
- The Nallah Amir Khan canal, linking Dal Lake with Anchar Lake
These works improved connectivity and water management in the region.
Among the later governors, Atta Mohammad Khan is sometimes regarded as relatively capable. For a brief period, he declared independence from Kabul and even issued coins in the name of Sheikh Noor-ud-Din Wali, the revered patron saint of Kashmir.
Despite such isolated examples of administrative effort, the overall condition of the valley remained unstable. Frequent changes in governance, combined with exploitative taxation, continued to burden the population.
End of Afghan Rule
The last Afghan governor of Kashmir was Jabbar Khan. By this time, public dissatisfaction had reached a peak.
Two prominent Kashmiri figures—Birbal Dhar and his son Raj Kak Dhar—travelled to Lahore and appealed to Maharaja Ranjit Singh for intervention.
Responding to this request, Ranjit Singh sent a large Sikh force into Kashmir. In 1819 AD, the Sikh army defeated the Afghan administration and took control of the valley.
This event brought an end to Afghan rule and marked the beginning of Sikh rule in Kashmir, closing a long and turbulent chapter in the region’s history.