On the afternoon of 13 July 1931, outside the walls of the Central Jail in Srinagar, a gathering that had formed around the trial of a political prisoner became one of the most defining moments in the modern history of Jammu and Kashmir. By the end of that day, twenty-two people had lost their lives in police firing. Their deaths transformed the political landscape of the region and became a powerful symbol that would be remembered for generations.
The tragedy of 13 July was not merely an isolated confrontation between a crowd and the state. It was the culmination of years of growing social, economic, and political tensions under the Dogra monarchy. It occurred during a period when ideas of political representation, public rights, and participation in governance were spreading across British India and gradually finding expression in Kashmir as well.
For many Kashmiris, 13 July 1931 represents a turning point — a moment when ordinary people entered the political sphere in a more organised and visible manner. The day became associated with sacrifice, political awakening, and the demand for a greater voice in the affairs of the state.
At the same time, the history of 13 July remains complex. The period surrounding the events of 1931 also witnessed communal tensions and violence that affected different communities. A complete understanding of this chapter requires examining not only the tragedy at Central Jail but also the wider social and political circumstances that shaped Kashmir during that era.
Nearly a century later, 13 July continues to be one of the most discussed events in Kashmir’s history because it stands at the intersection of memory, identity, politics, and historical interpretation.
Kashmir Before 1931: Society Under Dogra Rule
To understand the significance of 13 July 1931, it is important to look at the circumstances that existed before that historic day.
The modern political history of Jammu and Kashmir began after the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846, following the First Anglo-Sikh War, when the British transferred control of the region to Gulab Singh, establishing the rule of the Dogra dynasty over the princely state.
Jammu and Kashmir was a diverse region consisting of different geographical areas, communities, languages, and cultural traditions. The state included the Kashmir Valley, Jammu, Ladakh, and other regions, each with its own distinct social character.
Over the decades, the Dogra administration introduced developments in areas such as infrastructure, education, and governance. However, the relationship between the rulers and various sections of society remained complicated. Many people expressed dissatisfaction over issues including taxation, administrative practices, economic hardships, and limited opportunities in government employment.
These grievances did not emerge suddenly. They developed gradually over time as different sections of society experienced the realities of princely rule. By the early twentieth century, these concerns had created an environment in which questions of rights, representation, and governance became increasingly important.
The Growth of Social and Political Awareness
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Kashmir witnessed several movements that reflected the growing awareness among different sections of society.
One of the earliest significant struggles was that of the Shawl weavers, whose economic conditions had deteriorated due to heavy taxation and difficult working conditions. Their protests demonstrated that ordinary workers could organise collectively and raise their voices against economic hardships.
Later, workers of the Silk Factory in Srinagar also expressed grievances regarding wages and working conditions. This movement became another example of organised public action and showed the emergence of collective consciousness among workers.
The Mulki movement further reflected concerns regarding employment opportunities and the position of local residents within the state administration. Many people demanded greater participation of locals in government services and questioned policies that they felt limited their opportunities.
Although these early movements were different from the political movement that emerged in 1931, they created an important foundation. They helped develop a wider awareness about social justice, representation, and the relationship between the state and its people.
The Changing Political Environment of the 1930s
The early decades of the twentieth century were a period of major political transformation across the Indian subcontinent. Movements demanding reforms, representation, and greater participation in governance were gaining strength in British India as well as in several princely states.
Kashmir was also experiencing significant social changes. The spread of modern education, the emergence of an educated middle class, and the growth of newspapers and public discussions created new spaces for political awareness.
A younger generation of educated Kashmiris began questioning existing systems and discussing issues related to employment, administration, and public rights.
The traditional relationship between ruler and subject was beginning to change. People were no longer willing to remain only recipients of government decisions; they increasingly wanted a role in shaping those decisions and influencing the future of the state.
The Reign of Maharaja Hari Singh
Maharaja Hari Singh ascended the throne of Jammu and Kashmir in 1925.
His reign introduced several administrative and social reforms. He supported measures related to education and attempted to modernise aspects of the state administration. However, despite these initiatives, dissatisfaction continued among sections of the population.
Many Kashmiris felt that they had limited access to government positions and decision-making institutions. Questions regarding political representation, administrative fairness, and equal opportunities became increasingly important.
The Maharaja’s government faced the difficult challenge of governing a society where political expectations were changing rapidly.
By the beginning of the 1930s, Kashmir had entered a period of growing political consciousness. Public discussions had become more intense, and events that might previously have remained local matters began attracting wider attention.
The Road Towards 1931
The year 1931 became a defining moment in Kashmir’s modern history because several developments combined to create an atmosphere of unrest.
During the early months of that year, a number of incidents involving religious sentiments, administrative decisions, and public grievances increased tensions between sections of society and the state.
One significant incident occurred in Jammu in April 1931, when controversy arose around restrictions connected with a religious sermon during Eid prayers. Historical accounts describe the details differently, but the incident contributed to growing dissatisfaction and public anger.
Other disputes related to religious matters, administrative actions, and public demonstrations further intensified the atmosphere of uncertainty.
Public meetings became increasingly common. Speakers began addressing not only religious concerns but also broader questions about governance, representation, and the rights of people.
By the middle of 1931, Kashmir had reached a critical moment. Years of accumulated grievances, combined with rising political awareness, had created conditions where a single incident could trigger a much larger movement.
Abdul Qadeer: The Incident That Sparked a Historic Crisis
The immediate events that led to the tragedy of 13 July 1931 began with the emergence of a relatively unknown figure named Abdul Qadeer.
Historical accounts differ regarding his personal background. Some sources describe him as a servant or cook accompanying a British visitor to Kashmir, while others provide different accounts of his origins and identity. Despite these differences, there is broad agreement that his speech at Khanqah-e-Moula in Srinagar in June 1931 became a significant turning point in the political atmosphere of Kashmir.
During the gathering, Abdul Qadeer delivered a speech in which he strongly criticised the Dogra administration. The authorities considered his words provocative and accused him of attempting to incite opposition against the state. He was subsequently arrested and charged with sedition.
Before this incident, Abdul Qadeer was not a widely known political figure in Kashmir. However, his arrest transformed him into a symbol around which existing public dissatisfaction began to gather.
The case against him attracted widespread attention because many people viewed the trial as connected to larger issues of governance, representation, and the relationship between the ruler and the people.
The Trial That Became a Public Movement
The proceedings against Abdul Qadeer attracted large crowds. People gathered outside the court to follow developments and express their support.
As public interest increased, the authorities became concerned about maintaining law and order. The government feared that large gatherings around the court could lead to unrest.
To ensure greater security, the trial proceedings were shifted from the regular court to the more heavily guarded premises of the Central Jail in Srinagar.
This decision unintentionally transformed the trial into an even larger public event. The jail, instead of remaining only a place where a legal case was being heard, became the centre of political attention.
By 13 July 1931, thousands of people had gathered outside the Central Jail.
The Morning of 13 July 1931
On that day, people from Srinagar and surrounding areas arrived near the Central Jail. They included ordinary residents, workers, traders, and others who had come to follow the proceedings of Abdul Qadeer’s case.
The exact nature of the gathering before the firing remains a subject of historical discussion. Different accounts describe the atmosphere differently. Some historical narratives portray it as a gathering of people waiting peacefully for news of the trial, while others mention growing tension between the crowd and the authorities.
The administration had deployed armed forces around the jail as a precautionary measure.
As the number of people increased, the situation became increasingly tense. A legal proceeding had developed into a major political event, reflecting the deeper dissatisfaction that had been building in Kashmir for years.
The Central Jail Firing
According to historical records, the situation outside the Central Jail escalated, and the authorities opened fire on the gathering.
The firing resulted in the deaths of twenty-two people.
The exact sequence of events immediately before the shooting remains debated among historians and different sources. Accounts vary regarding the actions of the crowd and the response of the authorities. However, the central historical fact remains clear: people gathered outside Srinagar Central Jail were killed during police firing on 13 July 1931.
The incident created shock and grief throughout Kashmir.
Those who lost their lives were mostly ordinary people. They were not famous leaders before that day, but their deaths placed them at the centre of one of the most significant moments in Kashmir’s modern history.
Over time, they came to be remembered as the Martyrs of 13 July 1931.
The Adhan Narrative: Memory, Faith, and Sacrifice
Among the most powerful accounts associated with 13 July 1931 is the story of the adhan, the Islamic call to prayer.
According to Kashmiri oral tradition and later commemorative accounts, when the time for prayer arrived during the gathering, one person stood up and began reciting the adhan. The account states that he was shot before completing it.
Another person then stepped forward to continue the call, but he too was shot.
The story continues that one person after another completed the adhan until twenty-two men had fallen.
For generations, this narrative has remained one of the strongest symbols connected with the memory of 13 July. It represents courage, faith, and the willingness to sacrifice one’s life.
However, historians have also noted that while the firing and deaths of twenty-two people are documented historical events, the exact sequence of individuals continuing the adhan is mainly preserved through oral traditions and later commemorative writings.
Therefore, the adhan account occupies an important place both as a historical memory and as a symbol that shaped how generations understood the sacrifice of those who died that day.
The Twenty-Two Martyrs
The people killed on 13 July 1931 came from ordinary backgrounds. Their names became remembered because of the historical moment in which they lost their lives.
Different historical sources provide variations in the spelling and sometimes the listing of names. This is largely due to the fact that many original records were written in Urdu or Persian, and later translations into English resulted in different spellings.
A commonly cited list of the twenty-two martyrs includes:
Khaliq Shora, Akbar Dar, Ghulam Ahmad Rather, Usman Misgar, Ghulam Ahmad Bhat, Ghulam Mohammad Halwai, Ghulam Nabi Kalwal, Ghulam Ahmad Naqash, Ghulam Rasool Durra, Ameer-ud-Din Makayi, Subhan Makayi, Ghulam Qadir Khan, Ramzan Chola, Ghulam Mohammad Sofi, Naseer-ud-Din, Ameer-ud-Din Jandgaru, Mohammad Subhan Khan, Mohammad Sultan Khan, Abdul Salam, Ghulam Mohammad Teli, Fakeer Ali, and Ghulam Ahmad Dar.
Because of variations in historical records, no single English spelling list is universally accepted. However, all major accounts agree on the central fact that twenty-two people were killed during the firing and that their deaths became a defining symbol in Kashmir’s political history.
The Funeral and the Birth of a Memorial Site
The news of the firing spread rapidly throughout Srinagar.
The deaths created widespread grief and anger. Shops closed, public life was disrupted, and the city entered a period of mourning and unrest.
The bodies of those killed were taken for burial, and thousands participated in the funeral procession.
They were buried at Naqshband Sahib in Srinagar, at the place that later became known as Mazar-i-Shuhada (Martyrs’ Graveyard).
The site became a place of remembrance where people gathered for decades to honour those who lost their lives on 13 July 1931.
The Wider Unrest After 13 July
The firing at Central Jail was followed by widespread unrest in parts of Jammu and Kashmir.
Historical accounts record incidents of violence, including attacks on members of different communities and damage to property during the period of turmoil that followed.
The days after 13 July were marked by fear, anger, and communal tension.
At the same time, there were also instances of individuals attempting to protect neighbours and prevent further violence.
The events of 1931 cannot be understood only through the tragedy at Central Jail. A complete historical picture must also examine the wider consequences and experiences of different communities during this turbulent period.
The Government Response After the Tragedy
The firing outside the Central Jail on 13 July 1931 created a political crisis for the Dogra administration. The deaths of twenty-two people intensified public anger and brought long-standing grievances into the centre of political discussion.
The incident could no longer be treated as a temporary disturbance. It had become a defining moment that exposed the growing gap between the administration and sections of the population.
The government faced increasing pressure to investigate the circumstances that led to the firing and to address the wider concerns that had been developing over years.
The tragedy demonstrated that political dissatisfaction in Kashmir had entered a new phase. The people’s demands were no longer limited to individual complaints; they had become connected with larger questions about representation, rights, and participation in governance.
The Dalal Inquiry Commission
Following the events of 13 July, Maharaja Hari Singh’s government appointed an inquiry committee headed by Chief Justice Barjor Dalal to examine the circumstances surrounding the firing.
The purpose of the inquiry was to investigate the actions of the authorities and the events that led to the loss of lives outside the Central Jail.
The commission became part of the official response to the tragedy. However, many political activists and sections of society believed that the issue extended beyond the firing itself.
For them, the incident represented deeper problems within the administration, including concerns about employment opportunities, political representation, and the lack of public participation in governance.
The demand for wider reforms continued to grow.
The Glancy Commission: A New Phase of Reform
In November 1931, Maharaja Hari Singh appointed the Glancy Commission, headed by Sir Bertrand Glancy, to examine public grievances and recommend administrative reforms.
The commission received representations from various sections of society and studied complaints related to government employment, education, administrative practices, and political participation.
Its importance lay in the fact that it created an official channel through which people could present their concerns before the state.
The commission’s work reflected a major change in the political environment of Kashmir. The administration was no longer facing isolated complaints; it was responding to a broader demand for reform and greater participation.
The Recommendations of the Glancy Commission
The recommendations of the Glancy Commission led to several administrative changes in Jammu and Kashmir.
Among the important developments was the introduction of measures aimed at improving representation and addressing some public grievances.
One of the most significant outcomes was the establishment of the Praja Sabha in 1934, which became the first legislative assembly of Jammu and Kashmir.
Although the Praja Sabha had limited powers and the Maharaja retained ultimate authority, its creation represented an important constitutional development.
For the first time, representatives of the people had a formal institution where matters related to governance could be discussed.
The reforms did not satisfy all political demands, but they marked a significant shift in the relationship between the state and its subjects.
The Rise of Organised Political Movements
The events of 1931 created the environment in which organised political movements developed in Kashmir.
Before this period, public dissatisfaction often appeared through local protests and social movements. After 1931, political activity became more structured and began taking the form of organised movements.
In 1932, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah and Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas founded the All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference.
The organisation initially focused on issues affecting the Muslim population of the state, including political representation, social conditions, and administrative reforms.
Sheikh Abdullah, who had gained recognition through his speeches and public activities, soon emerged as one of the most influential political figures in Kashmir.
Sheikh Abdullah and the New Political Era
The rise of Sheikh Abdullah reflected the changing nature of Kashmiri politics after 1931.
Before entering politics, Abdullah worked as a teacher. His education and oratory skills helped him connect with large sections of society, and he soon became a prominent voice in discussions about political rights and reforms.
The new political leadership transformed public concerns into organised campaigns. Questions that had previously remained scattered among different sections of society began forming part of a broader political movement.
The demand was no longer limited to individual grievances. It became a larger discussion about the future structure of governance in Jammu and Kashmir.
The political awakening that began in the early 1930s had created a new generation of leaders who would influence Kashmir’s history for decades.
From Muslim Conference to National Conference
In 1939, the Muslim Conference was renamed the National Conference.
The change reflected an attempt to create a broader political organisation that could represent people beyond religious identity.
The National Conference later became one of the most influential political forces in Jammu and Kashmir.
Its emergence showed how deeply the events of 1931 had changed the political landscape of the region.
The gathering outside the Central Jail in 1931 was not only a moment of protest; it became part of a wider transformation that led to the growth of organised politics and new forms of political participation.
The Transformation of Kashmir’s Political Consciousness
The impact of 13 July 1931 extended far beyond the deaths that occurred outside the Central Jail.
The event changed the political consciousness of Kashmir by encouraging wider public participation and strengthening demands for reform.
Ordinary people who had previously remained distant from formal politics became increasingly involved in public discussions and political activities.
The tragedy became a symbol of a larger transformation — the movement from a society governed primarily through monarchical authority towards one where organised political participation had become a central force.
The Birth of Martyrs’ Day
Over time, the twenty-two people killed on 13 July became remembered as martyrs.
Their memory was preserved through annual commemorations, writings, speeches, and oral traditions. The burial site at Naqshband Sahib became a place of remembrance, and the day gradually became known as Martyrs’ Day.
For many Kashmiris, the commemoration represented the sacrifice of ordinary people who became part of a historic moment in the region’s political journey.
The memory of 13 July continued to influence political discussions long after the events of 1931 had passed.
Understanding History Beyond a Single Narrative
The legacy of 13 July 1931 remains complex because historical events often acquire different meanings over time.
For many people, the day represents a turning point in Kashmir’s struggle for political representation and a symbol of sacrifice against an unequal system of governance.
For historians, it also represents a broader period of transformation involving the decline of unquestioned monarchical authority, the rise of political organisations, and debates about identity and representation.
At the same time, the communal tensions and violence that followed the firing remain an important part of the historical record.
A complete understanding of 1931 requires examining all aspects of the period — the tragedy, the reforms, the political awakening, and the experiences of different communities.
The Making of a Historical Symbol
The significance of 13 July 1931 did not end with the firing outside the Central Jail in Srinagar. The deaths of twenty-two people transformed a tragic incident into a powerful historical symbol that continued to influence Kashmir’s political and social imagination for generations.
Over the decades, the memory of those who died was preserved through public commemorations, literature, political speeches, and oral traditions. The burial place at Naqshband Sahib became a site of remembrance, and the names of those killed became associated with one of the most important turning points in Kashmir’s modern history.
The event gradually moved beyond the boundaries of a single afternoon in 1931. It became connected with wider questions about governance, representation, identity, and the relationship between the state and its people.
13 July as Martyrs’ Day
For decades, 13 July was officially observed as Martyrs’ Day in Jammu and Kashmir.
Government institutions organised commemorative programmes, political leaders paid tributes, and official ceremonies were held to honour those who lost their lives in 1931.
For supporters of the observance, the day represented the beginning of Kashmir’s political awakening and the sacrifice of ordinary people who challenged an unequal system of governance.
The commemoration became deeply rooted in the public and political life of Jammu and Kashmir. Generations grew up hearing the story of the twenty-two martyrs and the events that unfolded outside the Central Jail.
The day became not only a remembrance of those who died but also a reflection of Kashmir’s changing political journey.
The Changing Meaning of 13 July Over Time
Historical events often acquire new meanings as societies change.
The memory of 13 July developed through different phases of Kashmir’s history. For many people, it remained a symbol of sacrifice, political awareness, and the demand for representation.
For historians, however, the event represents a broader transformation. It marked the beginning of organised political activity, challenged the traditional structure of monarchical authority, and contributed to the emergence of modern political movements in Kashmir.
The importance of 13 July lies not only in the firing itself but also in the developments that followed — the inquiries, reforms, rise of political organisations, and continuing debates about identity and governance.
The Politics of Remembering History
The history of 13 July also demonstrates how societies remember their past.
Historical memories are shaped not only by what happened but also by how later generations interpret those events.
Research on the memorialisation of 13 July has examined how the day became an important symbol in Kashmiri political consciousness. The memory of the martyrs became connected with different ideas of sacrifice, justice, dignity, and political identity.
At the same time, different communities and political groups have viewed the events of 1931 through different historical experiences.
For many Kashmiris, the story of the twenty-two people killed outside the Central Jail represents courage and sacrifice.
Others emphasise that the unrest of 1931 also included violence against members of different communities and that these experiences must remain part of the historical record.
A complete understanding of history requires acknowledging both the tragedy of 13 July and the wider consequences that followed.
13 July After 2019: The Debate Over Martyrs’ Day
The official status of 13 July changed after the constitutional developments of 2019, when Jammu and Kashmir underwent major political reorganisation.
Following these changes, 13 July was removed from the official list of government holidays.
The decision led to significant discussion and debate across political and social circles.
Supporters of the decision argued that official recognition of the day represented a particular interpretation of Kashmir’s political history.
Those who opposed the decision argued that removing the holiday ignored an important chapter of the region’s past and disregarded the memory of those who lost their lives in 1931.
The debate demonstrated that 13 July remained a living issue. Even decades after the event, it continued to influence discussions about history, identity, and politics.
Why 13 July Still Matters
The importance of 13 July 1931 can be understood through several dimensions.
It was a moment when ordinary people became visible participants in Kashmir’s political history. It accelerated demands for reform and representation and contributed to the rise of organised political movements.
It was also a human tragedy. The twenty-two people who died outside the Central Jail became remembered not because they were prominent figures before that day, but because their deaths placed them at the centre of a historic transformation.
Most importantly, 13 July remains a reminder that history is complex. Events are shaped by political conditions, social realities, economic circumstances, and human emotions.
Understanding the past requires examining all these factors together rather than viewing history through a single perspective.
Remembering 13 July With Historical Responsibility
The purpose of studying history is not only to preserve memories but also to understand them.
The events of 1931 should be examined through multiple sources, including official records, academic research, contemporary writings, and memories preserved by communities.
The firing outside Srinagar Central Jail, the deaths of twenty-two people, the inquiries that followed, the political reforms, and the rise of organised movements are all connected parts of the same historical journey.
A responsible approach to history does not ignore difficult questions. Instead, it examines them with honesty, evidence, and respect for the experiences of all communities.
A Chapter That Continues to Shape Kashmir
On 13 July 1931, a gathering outside Srinagar Central Jail became a defining moment in Kashmir’s modern history.
The firing that killed twenty-two people transformed public dissatisfaction into a broader political movement. It led to inquiries, reforms, and the emergence of political forces that would shape the future of Jammu and Kashmir.
But the importance of 13 July extends beyond the events of one day.
It represents the meeting point of history and memory — a moment where questions of governance, representation, sacrifice, and identity became deeply connected with Kashmir’s political journey.
Nearly a century later, the day continues to be remembered, discussed, and debated.
That continuing conversation itself demonstrates its historical importance.
13 July 1931 is not merely a date in Kashmir’s past. It remains a chapter through which generations continue to understand the region’s history, struggles, and transformation.
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